In 1868, over 250 years of de facto rule by Japanese feudal lords – bakufu, or “shogunates” – was brought to an end with the restoration of power in the hands of the new emperor, Meiji. The events leading to this shift are known as the Meiji restoration and represent the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the beginning of the Meiji period – meaning “enlightened rule” – in Japan. It would be an era of great change, and in less than fifty years the small, isolated country would be transformed into a modern, industrialized nation, with a constitutional government and a burgeoning colonial empire. There were two primary factors that precipitated this change: Japan’s sudden exposure to the developed Western world in the 1850s and 1860s, and the internal socio-political environment, both of which impelled the new government to embrace change and “catch up” to Western, industrialized nation like the United States and Great Britain. This essay will trace these developments and the changes they wrought in Japan.
The bakufu did not disappear overnight. These powerful land-owning lords, along with their families and samurai armies, had dominated the political landscape since the beginning of the 17th century. By the 19th century, there were rumblings in the peasant classes and among those loyal to the imperial family, but it was not until the arrival of an American expedition in 1853, and the subsequent fallout, that a genuine move towards political change was instigated. This dramatic arrival, led by Commodore Matthew Perry and consisting of four modern naval steamships, succeeded in puncturing the shogunate government’s strict policy of isolationism; the threat of American naval might compelled them to open up trade, which many Western nations had been seeking to do for decades (Goto-Jones 15). The following year, the shogunate government signed a trade agreement with the United States, which was quickly followed by similar agreements with other European powers. These treaties opened Japanese ports to foreign trade and was thus the county’s first step, hesitant towards modernization.
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These treaties, however, would lead the government to be known in Japan as the “Unequal Treaties regime,” due to extremely favourable terms granted to Western nations (Auslin 1). As Goto-Jones (2009) writes, “Japan had lost control of its tariffs, had opened its borders to trade and commerce with the West, and had even granted the privilege of extra-territoriality to the Western powers (which meant that foreign nationals were exempt from Japanese law even on Japanese soil)” (16). Emperor Khōmei, and Meiji following, did not give assent to these treaties and refused to abide by them, which increased their popularity. Disaffected daimyo, court nobles, and samurai, among others, began to rally behind the Emperor, who was, in turn, able to assert more authority (Lincicome). The shogunate officially came to end in 1867, when Emperor Meiji ascended the throne and the powerful Tokugawa shogunate – unpopular for an apparent submission to Western “barbarians” – puts its powers at the Emperor’s disposal. Although there were still pockets of resistance, the shogunate government was dissolved and the restoration solidified by 1868 (Gordon 57-59).
The new, imperial government began a series of reforms, based on the Five Charter Oath in 1868 and formalized with a new constitution in 1889. In the Oath – an attempt to embrace principles of modern government – the leaders of the Meiji restoration promised to create public assemblies for debating and resolving local matters, that all classes would be involved in the deliberation of state affairs, that lower classes would be allowed to pursue their economic interests without interference, and that an international search for knowledge and training would be undertaken to increase economic development (Gordon 78-79). The last of these may have been the simplest to put into action, but also the most important.
Expeditions were sent to Western nations, to see the processes of modern industry first-hand and to learn all that they could. Some were left behind to study in Europe and bring back their new training and knowledge. Thousands of young people were sent abroad to study and thousands of Western teachers hired to introduce science, math, technology, and languages to Japanese schools (Goto-Jones 48-50). Meanwhile, the government began building the infrastructure that would modernize Japan and allow an industrial revolution to take place. They created an extensive central administration apparatus, modern communication systems, improved roads and began building railroad line and shipping facilities, paving the way for modern transportation systems (Lincicome). They also created a modern financial system and expanded their means of taxation through land reform.
In another crucial step, the Meiji regime used public funds generated through the new system of taxation to build model factories and other industrial facilities. Not only were these demonstrations of Japan’s new technological knowledge, but they were sold off to Japanese entrepreneurs at a pittance, stimulating the creation of modern industry and economic growth. By this time, Lincicome writes, “private entrepreneurs and private capital were primed to move aggressively into various light industries catering to the foreign and domestic markets.” By the early 1870s, then, Japan was primed for a modern industrial revolution.
- Auslin, Michael R. Negotiating with Imperialism: The Unequal Treaties and the Culture of Japanese Diplomacy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006. Web.
- Gordon, Andrew. A Modern History of Japan: From Tokugawa Times to the Present. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Print.
- Goto-Jones, Christopher S. Modern Japan: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 20 Sept. 2013.
- Lincicome, Mark E. “Meiji Period.” Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. Ed. Karen Christensen and David Levinson. Vol. 4. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2002. 129-135. World History In Context. Web. 19 Sept. 2013.
