Critical Race Theory (CRT) is a theoretical perspective in sociology that closely examines all levels of interaction between races, including the micro-level, exposing the true consequences of racial stratification in our society rather than ignoring or denying them (Brown, 2003). Many sociologists (and others) want to believe that racism in our culture is now the exception rather than the rule; but according to Delgado & Stefancic (2001), racial prejudice is so deeply woven into society that most of the time we are not aware of it.
Brown (2003) identifies five concepts that are the foundation of CRT. First, racial stratification is ubiquitous in our society and can have significant effects, as suggested above. Second, because whites tend to camouflage their self-interest and desire to maintain privileges beneath a cloud of “objectivity,” racism is difficult to see and even more difficult to change. Third, categories of races are not inherent; instead, they are created by society. Fourth, the experiences of subordinated races are valid and essential commentaries on the racism of our society. Fifth, critical race theorists should work to eliminate injustice, rather than aspire to theoretical knowledge for its own sake (Brown, 2003). Rollock & Gillborn (2011) add two more principles: white people have little incentive to equalize resources and privileges among races, and racism interacts with other kinds of injustice such as sexism or ageism.
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Although CRT has developed in different directions since its beginning, Bell (2009) emphasizes the common core among CRT theorists — race and racism viewed through a social constructionist orientation, and a desire for justice against systems that subordinate people of color. Social constructionist theory states that knowledge is constructed rather than created; for example, concepts about family relationships are not learned passively, but are constructed by family members, including children, together (Mallon, 2013). Social constructionism can be contrasted with essentialism, which states that real things exist and are defined by their essences or natures, not by social construction. It can also be contrasted with skeptical views, which suggest that real things do not exist, only social constructions exist. Social constructionism stipulates that real things do exist, but they are not defined by their essences, at least not entirely. Members of society construct beliefs and meanings related to the real things. As applied to racism, social constructionism focuses on the development of thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and values regarding race, constructed iteratively across different levels, from individual interactions to mass behavior.
Pyke (2010) asks the question, “Why are we not studying internalized racial oppression?” She explains that a pervasive system of behavioral conditioning and cognitive construction works to ensure that most, if not all, members of our society internalize the logic and morality of racial oppression. This occurs even in the most open-minded settings, where it appears that individuals are completely objective and unbiased (Pyke, 2010). As a result, people who are subjugated become so convinced of their own inferiority that they find ways to place themselves above certain subgroups within their own ethnic group. Pyke (2010) gives the example of the use of the derisive term “wetback” among Mexican-Americans, to denote those who are newly or illegally immigrated.
Brown (2003) studied mental health in the context of critical race theory and discussed potential mental health problems caused by the presence of racial stratification. He points out that to understand this subject requires making links between an individual’s mental health needs and the institutions (or lack of them) available to meet those needs. Brown (2003) states, “racial stratification produces mental health problems to the extent it generates stressful circumstances and cognitive states conducive to emotional distress.” For instance, victims of racial prejudice and discrimination are likely to feel unworthy and hopeless, both of which can lead to depression and even suicide. A number of studies illustrate that blacks internalize anti-black feelings and beliefs (Brown, 2003). Therefore, they are unable to feel happy with their true selves. In 2010, Margaret Beale Spencer recreated a powerful 1940s study that showed black and white children preferred white dolls. Her results (which surprised many laypeople) indicated that children today, after many years of desegregation, have the same viewpoints on skin color as the children 70 years ago. It is not surprising that blacks may develop an “anti-self” belief system, as suggested by Brown (2003).
Brown (2003) also states that African-Americans may have self-destructive tendencies, suppressed anger that can turn to rage if it is expressed, and extreme racial paranoia, all due to racial stratification. Critical race theory predicts these mental health issues; the next step is to collect data to either confirm or deny their presence.
Velez et al. (2008) studied Latina/o student activists during the 2006 anti-immigration movement. Using the lens of critical race theory, they evaluate the students’ actions, which included sit-ins, rallies, school walk-outs, educational activities, and voter registration. In these ways, the students were able to “flex their political muscles” and fight for the right of themselves and others to live in the United States. As part of their ideological path, they deconstructed racism in the U.S. and brought it into the light, showing that race theory is truly critical.
The students studied by Velez et al. (2008) were responding to larger scale threats from the government and from vigilante groups; how do similar students respond to ordinary, daily micro-aggressions? Yosso et al. (2009) examined responses to three types of micro-aggression — interpersonal, institutional, and racial jokes. The term “micro-aggression” was first used to describe the continual disrespect experienced by African-Americans in mostly white workplace environments, then was expanded to other ethnic groups and other settings. Sometimes the most innocuous-sounding (to whites) statements can be damaging, such as “You’re not like the rest of them,” or “But you speak English so well” (Yosso et al., 2008).
Latina/o students described being “shocked” and “humiliated” when other students used racial slurs, refused to sit near them, or told jokes based on stereotypes. They were not sure how or whether to respond, because if they spoke up, they might be called “complainers” (or worse), and if they did not speak up, they allowed the white students to think they had done nothing wrong (Yosso et al., 2008).
Clearly, the tenets of critical race theory can be supported in many areas of society, including work environments, schools (from preschool to university), and medical facilities. As long as society continues to ignore and deny that racism still exists in our culture, it will be impossible to make any substantial changes.
- Bell, D. (2009) Who’s afraid of critical race theory? In E. Taylor, D. Gillborn, and G. Ladson-Billings (Eds.) Foundations of critical race theory in Education. New York: Routledge.
- Brown, T. (2003). “Critical race theory speaks to the sociology of mental health: Mental health problems produced by racial stratification.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior. Retrieved from http://www.clas.ufl.edu/
- Delgado, R., and Stefancic, J. (2001). Critical race theory: An introduction. New York: New York University Press.
- Mallon, R. (2013). Naturalistic approaches to social construction. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu
- Pyke, K. D. (2010). What is internalized racial oppression and why don’t we study it? Acknowledging racism’s hidden injuries. Sociological Perspectives,53(4), 551-572.
- Rollock, N., and Gillborn, D. (2011). “Critical race theory.” British Educational Research Association. Retrieved from http://www.bera.ac.uk
- Vélez, V., Huber, L. P., Lopez, C. B., de la Luz, A., & Solórzano, D. G. (2008). Battling for human rights and social justice: A Latina/o critical race media analysis of Latina/o student youth activism in the wake of 2006 anti-immigrant sentiment. Social Justice, 35(1 (111), 7-27.
- Yosso, T. J., Smith, W. A., Ceja, M., & Solorzano, D. G. (2009). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate for Latina/o undergraduates. Harvard Educational Review, 79(4), 659-691.
