One of the most studied dimensions of the human experience is that of learning and its relationship to cognition and behavior. A review of the literature suggests that there is no single commonly accepted definition of learning. Instead, different theorists hold different perspectives depending upon their preferred schools of thought. One common definition is the process of acquiring new knowledge and mastering skills through experiences or study.
However, psychologists find this definition too nebulous and broad for purposes of advancing the scientific study of observable behavior (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). The preferred definition by many theorists is that learning is “a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that occurs because of reinforced practice” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, p.3). Olson and Hergenhahn (2009) further specify that this change is one that cannot be attributed to transitory physical or emotional states, such as illness, fatigue, or the use of chemical substances.
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"Learning, Cognition and Behavior".
Olson and Hergenhahn (2009) provide several key tenets underlying the concept of learning and the role of behavior in relation to learning. First, learning is a tool that is used by humans, animals and some lower life forms to accommodate their adaptation to their unique environments. Learning can be distinguished from other adaptive behaviors in that it supplements evolutionary mechanisms and innate reflexive responses within living organisms (i.e., innate reflexive responses are automatic as opposed to learned). The second important tenet is that behavior is the product of learning that can be observed and is, therefore, a verifiable phenomenon. By observing and studying behavior, the researcher can infer that learning has transpired. It is recognized that the actual process of learning remains invisible rendering direct study difficult and limited. Consequently, the concept of isolating, observing and testing behavior as a by-product of learning is a well-accepted cornerstone to advancing scientific study. It is important that after learning has taken place, individuals (and animals) produce a new and specific behavior, with this new behavior relatively permanent (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
Two different types of learning that correlate learning and behavior are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. The first type of learning, classical conditioning, is rooted in the work of the Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, and occurs when a neutral stimulus is associated or paired with a stimulus that has intrinsic meaning. The association is based on how closely in time the two stimuli occur. Classical conditioning begins with a stimulus that automatically or reflexively elicits a specific response, such as presenting a hungry dog with a bowl of food (this stimulus has intrinsic meaning to the dog). The food is an “unconditioned stimulus” in that it automatically elicits the “unconditioned response” of salivation. There is no learning involved on the part of the dog in that the stimulus (food) automatically elicits the response (salivation).
In classical conditioning, or learning, a “neutral stimulus” (such as a bell ringing) is presented with the unconditioned stimulus (food). Over time, the learner will connect the two stimuli (food and ringing bell). As a result of learning, the previously neutral stimulus (the bell ringing) when presented alone will elicit the now conditioned response of salivating (Huitt & Hummel, 1997). Another example of classical conditioning follows. An individual receives a frequent injection of a drug (an unconditioned stimulus) that automatically causes or elicits an accelerated heart rate (unconditioned response). The injection takes place in a small examination room in a clinic, a neutral stimulus. After a number of visits to the clinic, simply being in the small room elicits an increased heart rate on behalf of the subject. Classical conditioning has occurred in which the small room is now a conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response of an accelerated heart rate.
The second type of learning is operant conditioning that is best associated with B.F. Skinner. This theory is based on the use of reinforcement to either increase or decrease the likelihood that a specific or similar behavior will recur. According to Skinner (1954), there are four types of basic reinforcement: positive, negative, punishment and extinction. The idea behind positive reinforcement is that if the subject experiences a positive outcome or reward for a specific behavior, the behavior will most likely recur. For example, if a child receives ice cream as a positive reward for cleaning his room, the likelihood that he will clean his room again will increase. A similar example is an experiment in which a bird is placed into a cage with a lever. If and when the bird pecks the lever, the lever opens a device that delivers food from an outside source into the cage. Soon, the bird learns that by pressing the lever (the desired behavior), it will receive a positive reinforcement or reward, in this case some tasty seed.
In contrast, negative reinforcement is the elimination of a stimulus that a subject considers negative or unpleasant. To illustrate, if a teen experiences his mother’s persistent nagging that he needs to mow the lawn every week, her complaining is perceived by him as a negative stimulus. He becomes aware that, after surprising her one weekend and mowing the grass, his mother stops complaining. With the elimination of this negative stimulus (his mother’s complaining), the likelihood that the desire behavior of mowing the grass will recur and increase.
Punishment, which is sometimes confused with negative reinforcement, is the introduction of an adverse stimulus in order to decrease an undesired behavior. A classic example is spanking a child for running out into the street, an undesired and potentially dangerous behavior. The child learns that when he runs into the street, he receives a spanking. To avoid the punishment, he now avoids the undesired behavior.
The fourth type of reinforcement, extinction, is the removal of a stimulus that results in the decrease of a specific behavior. An example is when a parent picks up her child each time she cries. The child learns that she can secure her mother’s attention with crying. If the parent decides not to respond when the child cries, the frequency of the child crying will be decreased (Skinner, 1957).
The last concept to be explored, albeit briefly, is that of cognition and its relationship to learning. Olson and Hergenhahn (2009) assert that cognition is an essential component in both classical and operant conditioning. Learning theories are based on cognitive associations that are made between stimuli and responses. Without cognition (i.e., the ability to think and process information), the subject is only capable of producing an automatic or reflexive response. This is not learning in that the subject is not acquiring and exhibiting observable new behaviors.
In conclusion, it is clear that the relationship between learning, behavior and cognition is quite complex. As studies continue, researchers are constantly exploring new relationships and producing findings that build upon what is already known.
