In Discourse on the Method for Conducting One’s Reason Well and for Seeking Truth in the Sciences, Descartes argues in favor of the existence of God. He puts forth several arguments and illustrations to support his argument. One such illustration invites the reader to imagine the distinction between an animal and a machine and a human and a machine. In terms of the animal, Descartes argues that if a machine possessed the same appearance and organs as an animal, humans would be unable to detect the difference between the two. In terms of the human, Descartes argues that if a machine possessed the same appearance and organs as a human, humans would be able to detect the difference between the two, even if the machine and the human are physically identical. Descartes claims that humans would be able to detect this distinction for two reasons: first, even if the machine could put words together, it would never be able to do so in such a way to express thoughts and emotions as humans do; second, even if the machine could complete tasks normally completed by humans, it would be unable to complete some tasks due to lack of knowledge (33).
Building on this illustration, Descartes then contrasts animals with humans. He claims that every human, regardless of the level of intelligence, is able to rearrange and organize words in such a way that thoughts and emotions can be expressed and understood. Conversely, every animal, regardless of the level of intelligence, is completely incapable of such self-expression. In this discussion, Descartes also refutes ancient beliefs that declared that animals were able to speak, but they spoke languages that were unintelligible to humans, and he claims that if that were the case, animals should be able to communicate with human beings by that point in time. Descartes underscores the differences between humans and animals by saying that each possesses a different soul (33). Furthermore, he claims that the human soul, or the rational soul, “can in no way be derived from the potentiality of matter” (34). This is the one of the most critical points of Descartes’ argument, as he believes that the concept of the soul “is of the greatest importance” (34) in his argument against “those who deny the existence of God” (34). After this declaration, he concludes his tract, though he continues to address the existence of God in Meditations on First Philosophy.
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In Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes lays forth his concept of objective, formal reality in discussing the existence of God. Objective, formal realities focus on ideas and the manifestation of those ideas, and in Descartes’ case, this idea centers on the existence of an immortal, boundless God. Even though God cannot be seen, Descartes offers a number of cause-and-effect scenarios designed to convince the reader of the existence of a Supreme Creator. Descartes asserts that something cannot simply be birthed out of nothing, that a stone one sees today could not have suddenly just appeared, unless there was a creator of that stone (49). Descartes also emphasizes that human beings could not have created the world, and that the objective reality associated with his ideas could not have originated solely within his own being (50). Descartes continues to reaffirm this point in his argument, restating his idea of objective, formal reality of God, a being that “is infinite, independent, supremely intelligent, and supremely powerful” (51). He states that the more he ruminates about all of the aspects of existence, from all the animals to all of humankind, the more convinced he is that none of it could have originated with himself or with another human, which in turn must mean that there is a universal creator.
Descartes’ purpose in convincing others of God’s existence is clear: if people do not believe in God, or a supreme creator, then there is little to distinguish themselves from animals. If people do not distinguish themselves from animals, then there is no real motivation, or even rationale, to behave ethically and judiciously. Descartes claims that belief in God, particularly a God who created humankind in his own image, inspires him and others to aspire “indefinitely for greater and greater or better things” (54). In the absence of such a belief, it is logical to presume that humankind will not aspire for these greater things, and instead will inspire to fulfill the basest desires. Descartes highlights the perfection of God and how it contrasts with the imperfection of humankind, and he appears to allude to the biblical story of creation when he discusses how one can be “deluded by a food’s pleasant taste to eat the poison hidden inside it” (66). Thus, Descartes’ purpose for encouraging belief in God seems largely driven by a desire for morality, as well as a desire to see people treat one another humanely, not bestially.
While Descartes sets forth a number of convincing arguments, several objections could be raised. For example, he claims that animals and humans are distinct because animals cannot communicate the way that humans do. However, animals clearly have a system of communication, even if this system appears completely foreign to humans, it does not make it any less valuable or effective. Explorers of the new world, who considered Native Americans savages, probably thought that they had no intelligent way to communicate with one another, but they did. Additionally, Descartes argues for the existence of a soul, but he does not fully explicate this argument. He distinguishes a human soul from an animal soul, but he does not fully enumerate the characteristics of a human soul. Moreover, Descartes repeats the idea, or formal, objective reality, of a “perfect” God multiple times, but there is scant discussion of the origin of evil. Descartes presents some sound logic in his densely written prose, but his arguments are far from ironclad.
- Ariew, Roger, and Eric Watkins. Modern Philosophy: An Anthology of Primary Sources. 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2009.
